![]() The re-adaptation of prey behaviour may occur after as short a time as one generation, which for moose ( Alces alces) or red deer ( Cervus elaphus) is no more than 4–5 years ( Berger et al. Typically the hunting success (HS) of re-colonizing predators in such cases is initially high, but will decrease over time as prey re-adapt to its presence. ![]() However, several studies in North America have demonstrated that after large predators, like wolf ( Canis lupus) and brown bear ( Ursus arctos) have been reintroduced, or have re-colonized an area where they have been absent for long periods, their prey swiftly regain their former anti-predatory behaviour ( Hunter & Skinner 1998 Berger 1999 Berger et al. A consequence of human-caused exterminations of large predators may therefore be that prey lose or change their anti-predator behaviour ( Bayers 1997). Conversely, isolation from predators should result in a selection against costly anti-predator behaviour ( Magurran 1999). Foraging theory predicts that animals may sacrifice feeding time in order to reduce the risk of predation ( Lima & Dill 1990 Brown 1999). Predation has long been recognized as a major selective force in the evolution of behavioural characteristics of mammals ( Harvey & Greenwood 1978), i.e. We explain the differences found to be caused by variation in predation pressure by large carnivores and the rate, and mode, of human harvest during the twentieth century. Moose behaviour towards wolves and humans typically differs in Scandinavia compared to North America. We found no evidence that moose expressed behavioural adjustments that lowered the HS of wolves in territories that had been occupied by wolves for up to 21 years. We show that hunting success (HS) of re-colonizing wolves ( Canis lupus) on moose ( Alces alces) in Scandinavia was higher than reported in North America, where moose have been continuously exposed to wolves and grizzly bears. Human harvest may replace natural predation but prey selection may differ from that of natural predators leading to a change in the behavioural response of prey. As a consequence of local predator extinction, prey may lose knowledge about natural predators but usually express behavioural adjustments after return of predators. ![]() Predation has been recognized as a major selective force in the evolution of behavioural characteristics of mammals.
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